Attachment to artificial intelligence: Development of the AI Attachment Scale, construct validation, and the psychological mechanisms of Human–AI attachment

Artificial intelligence (AI) systems are increasingly integrated into daily life, not only as tools but also as social partners that people may turn to for interaction and support. This raises important questions about whether, how, and why individuals form attachment-like bonds with AI, and the psychological implications of such attachments. Across five studies involving 1259 unique participants from Singapore and the US, the current work developed and validated the AI Attachment Scale and investigated the dispositional and motivational factors associated with attachment to AI, as well as its emotional and social outcomes. The AI Attachment Scale displayed strong psychometrics properties, including a reliable three-factor structure comprising of emotional closeness, social substitution, and normative regard subscales, strong convergent and discriminant validity, and high test–retest reliability. Examination of correlates revealed that time spent on AI, particularly when driven by socioemotional motivations, was strongly associated with AI attachment. Individuals higher in social anxiety, loneliness, and anxious attachment were also more likely to turn to AI as a compensatory surrogate when human connections were lacking. These tendencies were further linked to dispositional needs fulfilled by AI, including needs for closure through predictability, relatedness through socioemotional presence, and competence through affirming feedback. At the same time, stronger AI attachment is associated with heightened positive affect and life satisfaction, suggesting that AI attachment may satisfy psychological needs and provide meaningful emotional benefits. These findings provide the first validated measure of AI attachment and offer a foundation for future research on its psychological and societal implications.