Ginseng-derived nanoparticles accelerate diabetic wound healing by modulating macrophage polarization and restoring endothelial cell function

-induced oxidative stress. Moreover, GDNPs effectively regulated macrophage (RAW264.7) polarization towards the M2 phenotype, exerting anti-inflammatory effects. The results indicated that GDNPs act on the PI3K/AKT/HIF-1α and TLR4/MyD88/MAPK pathways to promote angiogenesis, reduce inflammatory and oxidative stress, modulate macrophage polarization, and accelerate wound healing in diabetes. This study provides insights into the therapeutic benefits of GDNPs in diabetic wound healing.