Comprehensive Review of Conventional, Targeted, Immunological and Emerging Therapies in Cancer Treatment

Cancer remains a major global health challenge, causing nearly 10 million deaths annually. Advances in biomedical science have expanded treatment beyond conventional chemotherapy and radiotherapy to include targeted molecular agents, immunotherapies, and novel modalities. This review summarises cancer therapeutics across four domains: conventional, targeted, immunological, and emerging approaches. We examine the mechanisms, clinical efficacy, limitations, and innovations, outlining the evolution of oncological care and the integration of opportunities. Conventional modalities such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy are discussed for their cytotoxic mechanisms and role in localised disease. Targeted therapies, including kinase inhibitors and monoclonal antibodies, are evaluated for molecular specificity and resistance. Immunological strategies, particularly immune checkpoint inhibitors and CAR-T cell therapy, are evaluated for their transformative impact. Emerging treatments, including oncolytic viruses, gene editing, and nanotechnology-based systems, are appraised for innovation and translational potential. While traditional methods retain relevance, combining them with precision medicine and immunological advances has yielded unprecedented efficacy in certain cancers. The future lies in personalised, synergistic regimens across these domains, supported by sustained interdisciplinary research and clinical validation.