Vaginal mycobiome characteristics and therapeutic strategies in vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC): differentiating pathogenic species and microecological features for stratified treatment

SUMMARY Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a prevalent global health burden, particularly among reproductive-aged women. Recurrent VVC affects a significant proportion of this population, presenting therapeutic challenges. The predominant pathogen, Candida albicans , opportunistically transitions from a commensal organism to a pathogen when microenvironmental conditions become dysregulated. Recently, non- albicans Candida species have gained attention for their reduced antifungal susceptibility and recurrence tendencies. Diagnosis is constrained by the limitations of conventional microbiological techniques, while emerging molecular assays offer enhanced pathogen detection yet lack established thresholds to differentiate between commensal and pathogenic states. Increasing resistance issues are encountered by traditional azole-based antifungals, necessitating innovative approaches that integrate microbiota modulation and precision medicine. Therefore, this review aims to systematically explore the pathogenic diversity, drug resistance mechanisms, and biofilm effects of Candida species. Vaginal microbiota (VMB) alterations associated with VVC were also examined, focusing on the interaction between Lactobacillus spp. and pathogenic fungi, emphasizing the role of microbial dysbiosis in disease progression. Finally, the potential therapeutic approaches for VVC were summarized, with a particular focus on the use of probiotics to modulate the VMB composition and restore a healthy microbial ecosystem as a promising treatment strategy. This review addresses antifungal resistance and adopts a microbiota-centric approach, proposing a comprehensive framework for personalized VVC management to reduce recurrence and improve patient outcomes.