The Risks Associated with the Use of Brain-Computer Interfaces: A Systematic Review

Brain-computer interfaces (BCI) are an emerging technology that can read the brain signals of users, derive behavioral intentions, and manifest them in the control of electronic technologies. While there are potentially great benefits of this technology, there may also be risks associated with their use. However, it is not clear if these risks are being considered in the early BCI literature. This systematic review aimed to identify the scope and types of BCI risks discussed in the literature and the methods used to identify these risks. Following the PRISMA protocol, 1184 articles were initially identified with the final selection of 58 published articles following systematic exclusion. Analysis of the included articles derived 20 different risks, which were categorized into seven risk themes spanning physical health risks through to legal and societal concerns. Only one study in the review used a method of risk assessment, with most articles identifying risks through discussion and opinion pieces. The findings highlight a lack of an empirical and comprehensive understanding of the risks that BCI technology could pose. It is concluded that further work is necessary to proactively identify BCI risks using formal risk assessment methods to inform early users and to direct risk control measures for BCI developers and regulators.