Classroom Observation of Student Behavior: A Review of Seven Observation Codes

AbstractA systematic review was conducted using PsychInfo, ERIC, and Google Scholar using the terms "classroom" and "direct observation". The search yielded 1,006 articles published between 1935 and 2022 with a total of seven observation codes (Behavioral Observation of Students in Schools, Classroom Observation of Engagement, Disruptive and Disrespectful Behavior, Direct Observation Form, Revised Edition of the School Observation Coding System, Response to Interpersonal and Physically Provoking Situations and the State-Event Classroom Observation System) meeting full inclusion criteria. The current article reviews the structure, content, training requirements and available psychometric evidence of each of the seven aforementioned observation codes. Each observation code was evaluated using criteria for each indicator for psychometric evidence. A synthesis of the reviewed literature indicates the need for increased attention to the psychometric evidence of observation codes, measurement invariance across racial/ethnic groups, and the acceptability of observation methods for school-based practitioners. Recommendations for the use of each observation code based on a synthesis of the reviewed studies and future directions for research in observational assessment are provided.Impact StatementThis paper reports the results of a systematic review of observation codes designed to assess student academic behaviors in classroom settings. Results indicate robust evidence for interobserver agreement, but far less consistent evidence for other important indicators of psychometric evidence including criterion-related validity and treatment sensitivity. The study highlights the need for further research on the psychometric evidence of observation methods, measurement invariance across racial/ethnic groups and the acceptability of methods for school-based practitioners.Keywords: behavioral assessmentclassroom observationacademic engagementASSOCIATE EDITOR: Stacy-Ann A. January Disclosure statementThe authors have no conflicts of interest to report.Additional informationNotes on contributorsRobert J. VolpeRobert J. Volpe, PhD, is Professor and Chair of the Department of Applied Psychology at Northeastern University and Co-director of the Center for Research in School-Based Prevention. His research focuses on behavioral assessment in school-based problem-solving models and evaluating classroom interventions for students with behavior problems.Emily HillEmily Hill, MS, is a Doctoral Student at Northeastern University. Her research focuses on developing and evaluating feasible behavioral assessment and intervention systems for use within school settings.Amy M. BrieschAmy M. Briesch, PhD, is Associate Professor in the Department of Applied Psychology at Northeastern University and Co-director of the Center for Research in School-Based Prevention. Her research interests include the role of student involvement in intervention design and implementation, as well as the development of feasible and psychometrically sound measures for the assessment of student behavior in multitiered systems of support.Isabella LeiwantIsabella Leiwant, MS, is a Doctoral Student at Northeastern University. Her research interests include the promotion of student mental health and prevention of health risk behaviors.