α-Ketoglutarate Modulates Macrophage Polarization Through Regulation of PPARγ Transcription and mTORC1/p70S6K Pathway to Ameliorate ALI/ARDS

As tissue-resident cells in the lung, alveolar macrophages display remarkable heterogeneity and play a crucial role in the development and control of septic acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ALI/ARDS). Recent evidence suggests that α-ketoglutarate (α-KG) plays an important role in alternative activation of macrophage (M2) through metabolic and epigenetic reprogramming, and thus possesses anti-inflammatory properties. However, the underlying mechanisms of α-KG's effect on alveolar macrophage polarization and the potential effects of α-KG in ALI/ARDS remain unclear. Here, we examined the effects and mechanisms of α-KG on alveolar macrophage polarization, and investigated the possible effects of α-KG on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI/ARDS in a mouse model. We found that α-KG inhibited M1 macrophage polarization and promoted IL-4-induced M2 macrophage polarization in MH-S cells (a murine alveolar macrophage cell line). Further experiments showed that α-KG down-regulated the expression of M1-polarized marker genes and inhibited the activities of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1)/p70 ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70S6K) signaling pathway in M1-polarized MH-S cells. Moreover, our results showed that α-KG promoted IL-4-induced M2 polarization of MH-S cells by augmenting nuclear translocation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and increasing expression of relevant fatty acid metabolic genes. Finally, using an LPS-induced ALI/ARDS mouse model, we found that α-KG ameliorated the LPS-induced inflammation and lung pathological damage, as well as α-KG pretreated mice had better clinical scores compared with the LPS group. These findings reveal new mechanisms of α-KG in regulating macrophage polarization which may provide novel strategies for the prevention and treatment of inflammatory diseases, including sepsis and septic ALI/ARDS.