Cyclooxygenases and Prostaglandins in Tumor Immunology and Microenvironment of Gastrointestinal Cancer

Standard treatment, such as chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and radiotherapy, for advanced GI malignancies has led to improved survival, but clinical outcomes have not improved as much as we would like in patients who present with advanced disease. Many strategies exist to develop more effective approaches for cancer prevention, interception, and treatment. Chemoprevention, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and certain combinations are being carefully evaluated on several fronts to strive for better cancer outcomes. A growing body of evidence supports the hypothesis that effective therapies should include elimination of tumor cells and subverting tumor immune evasion, including targeting immunosuppressive cells and reactivation of tumor-inhibited effector T cells by checkpoint inhibitors.