Fibromodulin facilitates the osteogenic effect of Masquelet's induced membrane by inhibiting the TGF-β/SMAD signaling pathway

. Furthermore, the negative regulatory effect of the TGF-β signaling pathway was verified. In conclusion, this study provides a novel theoretical basis for the application of IMs in bone-defect reconstruction and explores possible new mechanisms that may play an important role in promoting the bioactivity and osteogenic potential of IMs.