Engineering upconversion nanoparticles for synergistic photodynamic, photothermal and chemotherapy

), underscoring the therapeutic potential of PDT in managing solid tumors. In this review, we comprehensively discuss the recent advancements in UCNP-based nanoplatforms for synergistic cancer therapy, focusing on the integration of PDT with photothermal therapy (PTT) and chemotherapy. We systematically examined the critical optimization strategies-from rational synthesis and surface functionalization for enhanced biocompatibility and tumor targeting to the design of intelligent nanocarriers for controlled drug release. We also discuss the current challenges facing their clinical translation and highlight prospects in developing integrated theranostic agents for personalized medicine. This review elucidates how these multimodal systems overcome the limitations of monotherapy and would greatly contribute to the research of synergistic photodynamic, photothermal and chemotherapy in the future.