Difructose anhydrides as emerging functional food ingredients: Production methods, therapeutic potentials, and analytical perspectives

Difructose anhydrides (DFAs), a class of cyclic disaccharides composed of two fructose units, are novel functional food ingredients. Among the various DFAs discovered, DFA III has gained attention due to its well-known functions, such as improving mineral absorption, prebiotic effects, anticancerous and antiobesity effects. This study critically reviews the production methods, such as physical, chemical, and microbial methods; functional properties extensively supported by in vivo studies; and analytical characterization of various types of DFAs, including DFA I, DFA II, DFA III, and DFA IV. The review overviews different DFAs by highlighting their production methods and pharmacological benefits, mainly the ability to increase mineral absorption, prebiotic effects, low-calorie sweetening properties, anti-inflammatory effects, and their synergistic influence on flavonoid absorption. Furthermore, the current legal frameworks and the existing commercial applications of DFAs are discussed to provide practical insight for the stakeholders. The summary of analytical methods aids in selecting the most appropriate tool for the identification and detection of DFA, reliant upon the types of DFA and the complexity of the matrix involved. Additionally, the review points out several research gaps that highlight the necessity of exploring underexplored DFA analogues. This review positions DFAs as promising candidates for the next generation of prebiotic and multifunctional food ingredients by integrating production, functional, and analytical methods. • Comprehensive evaluation of DFA I–IV accompanied by comparative functional analysis • Evaluates different types of DFA production • Overview the roles DFA in imparting bioactive properties. • Summarizes key analytical tools for DFA detection in complex matrices • Highlights regulatory status and future potential in functional foods