Optogenetic neuromuscular actuation of a miniature electronic biohybrid robot

Neuronal control of skeletal muscle function is ubiquitous across species for locomotion and doing work. In particular, emergent behaviors of neurons in biohybrid neuromuscular systems can advance bioinspired locomotion research. Although recent studies have demonstrated that chemical or optogenetic stimulation of neurons can control muscular actuation through the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), the correlation between neuronal activities and resulting modulation in the muscle responses is less understood, hindering the engineering of high-level functional biohybrid systems. Here, we developed NMJ-based biohybrid crawling robots with optogenetic mouse motor neurons, skeletal muscles, 3D-printed hydrogel scaffolds, and integrated onboard wireless micro–light-emitting diode (μLED)–based optoelectronics. We investigated the coupling of the light stimulation and neuromuscular actuation through power spectral density (PSD) analysis. We verified the modulation of the mechanical functionality of the robot depending on the frequency of the optical stimulation to the neural tissue. We demonstrated continued muscle contraction up to 20 minutes after a 1-minute-long pulsed 2-hertz optical stimulation of the neural tissue. Furthermore, the robots were shown to maintain their mechanical functionality for more than 2 weeks. This study provides insights into reliable neuronal control with optoelectronics, supporting advancements in neuronal modulation, biohybrid intelligence, and automation.