Recent advances in metal–organic framework as nanocarriers for pesticide delivery

The excessive use of conventional agrochemicals has led to severe environmental contamination, low utilization efficiency, and increasing concerns regarding ecological safety and sustainability. In recent years, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as a versatile class of porous materials for advanced agrochemical delivery owing to their high surface area, tunable pore structure, and modular chemical design. This review systematically summarizes the recent progress in MOF-based agrochemical delivery systems, with particular emphasis on their synthesis evolution, structural characteristics, functional modification strategies, and environmentally responsive release behaviors. MOF-based nanoformulations are categorized according to their agricultural applications, including insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, and plant growth regulators. Representative systems are discussed to elucidate structure-performance relationships in terms of loading capacity, release kinetics, biological efficacy, and field-relevant performance. In addition, the multifunctional roles of MOFs as both delivery carriers and potential sources of beneficial macro- and micronutrients are highlighted, demonstrating their capacity to integrate crop protection with plant health management. Furthermore, critical challenges associated with MOF-based agrochemical systems are analyzed, including synthesis sustainability, environmental fate, biosafety, economic feasibility, and regulatory acceptance. Application-specific ecological risks, long-term behavior in soil-plant-water systems, and the need for standardized evaluation frameworks are discussed in detail. Finally, future perspectives are proposed to guide the rational design and practical implementation of MOF-enabled agrochemical technologies, emphasizing green synthesis, cost reduction, scalability, and farmer adoption. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive overview of MOF-based agrochemical delivery systems and offers insights into their potential role in advancing sustainable and intelligent modern agriculture.