Microbes and medicines: interrelationships between pharmaceuticals and the gut microbiome

batch and chemostat systems to animal and clinical studies are compared in terms of their utility for studying drug‒microbiome interactions. Finally, emerging evidence suggesting the gut microbiota composition may serve as a predictive biomarker for personalized medicine and therapeutic success is highlighted. Understanding and harnessing the complex interrelationships between medicines and microorganisms could offer novel avenues to optimize treatment outcomes and mitigate adverse drug effects.