Microplastics and nanoplastics in the terrestrial food chain: Uptake, translocation, trophic transfer, ecotoxicology, and human health risk

Plastics can linger for years in various environmental compartments after being discarded and exposed to the physical and chemical influences that dismantle their plastic structure to smaller pieces, commonly known as microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs). These persisted particles in the environment may bioaccumulate in living organisms subsequently, biomagnification through trophic transfer. However, a notable lack of attention has been focused on investigating micro- and nano-plastics (M/NPs) behaviour in terrestrial ecosystems. Therefore, this present review article comprehensively reviews the published data on the source, uptake, translocation, trophic transfer, and biological impacts of M/NPs in terrestrial biota across different trophic levels (i.e. soil to producers and then to consumers, including humans). The uptake mechanism of M/NPs at the cellular level, the potential effect on human health attributed, and the associated contaminants are investigated. To conclude, this review paper addresses the existing knowledge gap and recommends crucial avenues for further investigation that one should pursue.