Mechanistic insights into interfacial failure of hard carbon anodes in sodium-ion batteries under extreme conditions

desolvation energy barrier and interfacial migration impedance. The resulting high overpotential further drives electrolyte decomposition, forming a vicious cycle of: "aggravated side reactions → SEI crystallization → increased impedance → further side reactions". More critically, HC anode degradation is dominated by interfacial failure rather than bulk damage, providing a theoretical reference for wide-temperature SIB design and optimization.