Choking under pressure: Multiple routes to skill failure.

Choking under pressure has largely been explained by two different classes of theories.Distraction theories propose that pressure-induced failure occurs because attention needed to perform the task at hand is co-opted by task-irrelevant thoughts and worries.Explicit monitoring theories claim essentially the opposite -that pressure prompts individuals to attend closely to skill processes in a manner that disrupts execution.Although both mechanisms of choking have been shown to occur in certain contexts, it is unclear when distraction and/or explicit monitoring will ultimately impact performance.We propose that aspects of the pressure situation itself can lead to distraction and/or explicit monitoring, differentially harming skills that rely more (or less) on working memory and attentional control.Using category learning as a test bed, in three experiments we show that performance-contingent outcome pressures hurt rule-based category learning heavily dependent on attentional control.In contrast, pressure involving monitoring by others impairs information-integration category learning thought to run best without heavy demands on attentional control (Experiments 1-2).In Experiment 3, we leverage our knowledge about how specific types of pressure impact performance to design interventions to eliminate choking.Skill failure (and success) under pressure depends on the type of pressure one is under and the control structures of the task being performed.