Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in milk and dairy products: a literature review of the occurrence, contamination sources, and health risks

Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are man-made chemicals valued for their unique characteristics, such as their ability to withstand heat, water, and oil. These compounds are widely utilized across a range of applications. Therefore, the existence of these compounds in the environment and their accumulation in various ecosystems is a cause for concern regarding their potential health risks. Considering the importance of dairy products in the human diet, this review examines the global occurrence, sources, and health risks of PFAS contamination in milk and dairy products (hereinafter referred to as "MDPs"). The results of the PFAS detection in the reviewed studies show a diverse contamination pattern influenced by local industrial activities, agricultural practices and regulatory measures. PFAS have been detected in various MDPs, with significant contamination near industrial areas. MDPs are indicated to be significant vectors of individual exposure to PFAS, with contamination arising primarily from dairy animal feed, water and atmospheric sediments, as well as food processing materials. The health effects of PFAS exposure through MDPs consumption, particularly the risk of endocrine disruption, immunosuppression, and carcinogenicity, are also discussed. This review highlights the need for global standards and policy measures, encompassing stricter regulations on industrial emissions, agricultural practices, and more, to effectively reduce PFAS contamination in MDPs and safeguard consumer health.