Advancements and future perspectives in three-dimensional bioprinting of tissue-engineered vascular grafts

Cardiovascular disease remains a significant global health challenge. Artificial blood vessel transplantation is considered one of the most effective strategies for treating severe cardiovascular diseases. While autologous blood vessels are the preferred source for transplantation, their limited availability in patients presents considerable obstacles to clinical procedures. Most commercial artificial blood vessels are fabricated from polymers and are susceptible to complications such as thrombosis and restenosis. Consequently, there is an urgent clinical need for tissue-engineered vascular grafts that are non-thrombogenic and possess mechanical properties comparable to those of native blood vessels. In recent years, 3D bioprinting, an advanced research area at the forefront of biomedical engineering, has garnered considerable attention as a potential key driver of the so-called 'third industrial revolution.' Compared to conventional manufacturing methods, 3D bioprinting utilizing biomaterials enables the fabrication of artificial blood vessels with enhanced anatomical adaptability. This review summarizes recent advancements in the field of 3D bioprinting of artificial blood vessels, with an emphasis on commonly used 3D bioprinting technologies, underlying principles, and printing materials, and provides a comprehensive overview of the current applications of 3D bioprinted artificial blood vessels across various domains. Additionally, this article discusses prospective opportunities, remaining challenges, and future research directions in 3D bioprinting technology for artificial blood vessels.