Efficient removal of drug-resistant Providencia alcalifaciens and its associated QnrS2 antibiotic-resistance genes by carbon-doped polymer carbon nitride

and ˙OH were the vital reactive oxygen species (ROS) for antibiotic-resistance bacteria (ARB) inactivation and ARG degradation. ROS could induce cell rupture by damaging cellular membranes and disrupt metabolic processes by affecting enzyme activity. Additionally, a small-scale continuous-flow device could inactivate bacteria in hospital wastewater in 2.5 h under natural light irradiation, thus laying a foundation for advanced hospital wastewater treatment.