Biomarkers of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its modified form DON-3-glucoside (DON-3G) in humans

Abstract Background To date, considerable research has been devoted to biomarkers of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its modified form DON-3-glucoside (DON-3G) in humans. Since these both cause toxic effects in humans, identifying the biomarkers of these toxins is crucial for human health. Scope and approach In the present review, we systematically assess the profiles of human DON biomarkers in different regions, ages, sexes, and dietary habits; the specific features of DON biomarkers in pregnant women are discussed separately. We highlight recent advances in our knowledge of human DON-3G biomarkers. Key findings and conclusions Free DON and DON-glucuronide (DON-GlcA) are the major biomarkers of DON in human urine, whereas DON-3-sulphate and the deepoxy product DOM-1 are the secondary biomarkers. The amount of DON exposure in children and adolescents is higher than that in adults, whereas the elderly show the lowest levels, suggesting that young people, including children, face greater health risks from this toxin. DON can cross the placental barrier from mothers and may inhibit foetal growth and immune function. The vegetarian population shows a higher risk of exposure to DON and DON-3G due to their greater consumption of vegetables and cereals. Animal studies show that females excrete DON and its principal metabolites, including DON-3-GlcA, in their urine more rapidly than males. DON-15-GlcA is the most prominent urinary biomarker of DON-3G. This review should help to further understanding the specific profiles of human DON and DON-3G biomarkers.