Organophosphate pesticides an emerging environmental contaminant: Pollution, toxicity, bioremediation progress, and remaining challenges

Organophosphates (OPs) are an integral part of modern agriculture; however, due to overexploitation, OPs pesticides residues are leaching and accumulating in the soil, and groundwater contaminated terrestrial and aquatic food webs. Acute exposure to OPs could produce toxicity in insects, plants, animals, and humans. OPs are known for covalent inhibition of acetylcholinesterase enzyme in pests and terrestrial/aquatic organisms, leading to nervous, respiratory, reproductive, and hepatic abnormalities. OPs pesticides also disrupt the growth-promoting machinery in plants by inhibiting key enzymes, permeability, and trans-cuticular diffusion, which is crucial for plant growth. Excessive use of OPs, directly/indirectly affecting human/environmental health, raise a thoughtful global concern. Developing a safe, reliable, economical, and eco-friendly methods for removing OPs pesticides from the environment is thus necessary. Bioremediation techniques coupled with microbes or microbial-biocatalysts are emerging as promising antidotes for OPs pesticides. Here, we comprehensively review the current scenario of OPs pollution, their toxicity (at a molecular level), and the recent advancements in biotechnology (modified biocatalytic systems) for detection, decontamination, and bioremediation of OP-pesticides in polluted environments. Furthermore, the review focuses on onsite applications of OPs degrading enzymes (immobilizations/biosensors/others), and it also highlights remaining challenges with future approaches.