EverBatt: A Closed-loop Battery Recycling Cost and Environmental Impacts Model

The cumulative global electric vehicle (EV) sales surpassed 3.1 million units in 2017, with 1.9 million units of battery electric vehicles (BEVs), and 1.2 million units of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Of the cumulative global EV sales, The U.S. accounted for 0.40 million BEV sales, and 0.36 million PHEV sales (IEA 2018). Assuming a lifespan of 10 years for EVs, an average battery pack weight of 300 kg for BEVs, and an average battery pack weight of 200 kg for PHEVs, by 2027, 0.2 million metric tons of EV batteries would reach their end-oflife (EOL) in the U.S. Globally, the volume of spent automotive batteries would amount to 0.8 million metric tons by 2027. As the annual global EV sales are expected to grow from 1.4 million in 2017 to 21.5 million in 2030 (IEA 2018), the volume of spent automotive batteries would increase markedly beyond 2027.