3D laminar flow–assisted crystallization of perovskites for square meter–sized solar modules

Transforming laboratory-scale perovskite solar cells to large-scale production will require uniform crystallization of the perovskite film. We designed a method to aid the crystallization process by generating well-defined three-dimensional (3D) laminar airflow over square meter–sized perovskite films using a customized 3D-printed structure. The resultant perovskite solar modules with areas of 0.7906 square meters had a certified power conversion efficiency of 15.0% and achieved compliance with three sets of solar cell standards. Our metrics for a 1-year operational study from a 0.5–megawatt peak power perovskite solar farm indicate a 29% higher energy yield per kilowatt of installed capacity compared with that of silicon modules at the same facility that primarily resulted from their temperature-dependent operational characteristics.