Macrophage polarization-regulating hydrogels for bone regeneration

, BMP-2, TGF-β, VEGF) establish a pro-osteogenic microenvironment. Furthermore, we evaluate therapeutic outcomes across diverse bone defect scenarios, from standard critical-sized defects to pathological conditions such as infected, osteoporotic, and diabetic bone defects, where tailored hydrogels address distinct immunopathological barriers. The discussion extends to the potential application of these immunomodulatory hydrogels in cartilage and tendon repair, illustrating the broader relevance of macrophage-targeted strategies. By integrating material science with immunology, this review provides a framework for designing next-generation hydrogel therapies that harness macrophage plasticity to enhance bone regeneration and advance immunomodulatory tissue engineering.