Lithium resources and novel strategies for their extraction and purification

The demand for lithium (Li) for batteries has risen sharply. This review discusses Li resources (igneous rocks, clays, brines), production methods, and Li recycling from spent batteries. We highlight direct lithium extraction (DLE) techniques, focusing on lithium manganese oxides (LMOs). As challenges like sorbent degradation continue to be problematic, doping, surface coating, and the use of composites are explored as strategies to enhance LMO performance for sustainable Li production.