Photothermal Micro-Nano Solid Substrates for Intracellular Delivery via Laser-Assisted Photoporation

Introducing functional molecules into cells relies on carrier- or membrane disruption-based methods. Photoporation, utilizing laser irradiation to create transient membrane pores, facilitates the cytoplasmic entry of exogenous molecules. Photothermal agents, such as nanoparticles, bind to cell membranes and induce localized damage via thermal conversion or vapor nanobubbles. Vapor nanobubbles form thermally or via multiphoton ionization. Photothermal substrates, with immobilized agents, reduce cytotoxicity and serve as biocompatible cell culture platforms. Cell morphology and cytoskeletal organization significantly influence the efficacy of membrane disruption. Micronanopatterned surfaces control focal adhesion spatial organization and cytoskeleton arrangement. Engineered photothermal agents regulate cell spreading and adhesion, enhancing membrane disruption or resealing. In the context of intracellular delivery, this review examines the interactions among membrane mechanics, cytoskeletal structure, and photothermal agents. Recent developments in photothermal substrates, the effect of cell shape on membrane rupture, and current approaches to designing photothermal platforms to increase delivery efficiency are also covered. Understanding these mechanisms advances intracellular delivery strategies, improving targeted molecule delivery efficiency and minimizing cytotoxic effects. Further exploration of the interplay between the cell structure and disruption mechanisms is warranted for optimizing intracellular delivery techniques.