Recent advances in nano-enhanced biosensors: Innovations in design, applications in healthcare, environmental monitoring, and food safety, and emerging research challenges

The integration of nanotechnology into biosensor design has propelled significant advancements, transforming them into essential tools for precise and rapid detection in diverse fields. This comprehensive review highlights the latest innovations in nanotechnology-enhanced biosensors, emphasizing their role in healthcare, environmental monitoring, and food safety. It explores how advancements in signal transduction, detection limits, and surface functionalisation have enabled early disease diagnosis through biomarker detection, precise therapeutic drug monitoring, and real-time health assessments. In environmental applications, these biosensors offer unparalleled accuracy in detecting pollutants and pathogens, addressing critical challenges in water and air quality monitoring. In food safety, they ensure rapid identification of contaminants, including toxins, pesticide residues, and pathogens, supporting compliance with stringent safety standards. The review also examines challenges such as scalability and regulatory constraints, while discussing the transformative potential of emerging technologies like artificial intelligence, Internet of Things, and 3D printing. This comprehensive analysis provides valuable insights into the evolving applications and future potential of nanotechnology-driven biosensors.