Confining Nano-Fe3O4 in the Superhydrophilic Membrane Skin Layer to Minimize Internal Fouling

@P-PVDF membrane had higher surface fouling but it was much more reversible and much lower internal fouling compared with the control membrane. Our fouling analysis offers new insights into mass transfer mechanisms of the membrane with a nanoconfinement-enhanced hydration layer. This study provides an effective strategy to develop membranes with low internal fouling propensities.