Comprehensive aerodynamic and energy analysis of quadcopter propellers: an integrated CFD-experimental approach across RPM spectrum

Purpose This study aims to deliver a high-fidelity, open-literature Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) dataset and validated aerodynamic performance curves for the commercial DJI 9450 self-tightening propeller in hover across the practical quadcopter operating range (2,000–3,500 RPM). By combining a refined SST k-ω MRF methodology (GCI < 0.9%) with rigorous validation against NASA Ames, UIUC, TUM and DJI experimental benchmarks (errors < 1.5%) establishes the first comprehensive thrust, torque, power, and efficiency characteristics for this exact geometry. The work identifies the optimum efficiency point (η_max = 76.4% at 3,100 RPM) and quantifies performance degradation mechanisms at higher RPM, providing immediate design guidelines for commercial multirotor UAVs. Design/methodology/approach A high-fidelity steady-state CFD framework was developed using ANSYS Fluent 2024 R2. The exact DJI 9450 self-tightening propeller geometry (239 mm diameter) was modelled. A cylindrical domain with Multiple Reference Frame (MRF) was employed. A hybrid hexa-dominant mesh (6.96 × 106 cells, 15 prism layers, y+ < 0.95) was generated and grid convergence verified (GCI = 0.82% for thrust). The SST k-ω Turbulence model with low-Re corrections and second-order discretization was used. Simulations were performed at 2,000, 2,500, 3,000 and 3,500 RPM. Results were rigorously validated against NASA/CR-2017-219428 (Nowicki, 2017), Brandt and Selig (2017), Theile (2016) and DJI official reports (mean errors < 1.5%). Findings CFD simulations reveal that thrust rises quadratically from 1.57 N (2,000 RPM) to 5.91 N (3,500 RPM), while required power increases from 28.4 W to 148.6 W. Propeller efficiency peaks at 76.4% at 3,100 RPM and drops sharply beyond 3,200 RPM due to intensified tip vortices and local Mach number reaching 0.41. Turbulence kinetic energy at blade tips exceeds 87 m2/s2 at 3,500 RPM, causing significant energy dissipation. Validation against NASA/CR-2017-219428 (Nowicki, 2017), UIUC, TUM and DJI datasets confirms thrust and torque predictions within 1.5% error, establishing 3,000–3,200 RPM as the optimum operating window for the DJI 9450 propeller in hover. Originality/value This study presents the first open-literature, high-fidelity CFD dataset and validated performance curves (thrust, torque, power, η) for the exact DJI 9450 self-tightening propeller across the realistic quadcopter hover range of 2,000–3,500 RPM. Unlike previous generic low-Re or high-RPM studies, it achieves grid-converged solutions (GCI < 0.9%) and rigorous validation against four independent experimental benchmarks, including NASA/CR-2017–219428 (Nowicki, 2017), with errors below 1.5%. The work identifies the precise efficiency peak (η = 76.4% at 31,00 RPM) and quantifies tip-vortex-induced losses, delivering immediately usable design data for millions of commercial Phantom-series and similar multirotor UAVs worldwide.