Advances in electrocatalytic urea synthesis: Detection methods, C-N coupling mechanisms, and catalyst design

Urea, a critical nitrogen-based feedstock predominantly employed in fertilizer production, can be synthesized via electrocatalytic C–N coupling, which provides an efficient route for efficient nitrogen and carbon fixation under mild conditions. Nonetheless, electrocatalytic urea synthesis is hindered by intricate intermediate pathways and competing side reactions, leading to low urea selectivity and yield. Therefore, improving the efficiency of electrocatalytic urea synthesis requires efficient catalysts. This review presents an overview of urea detection methodologies, elucidates the C–N coupling mechanisms, and explores catalyst design strategies. Accurate detection of urea detection is particularly vital in low-yield systems; thus, we analyze the advantages and limitations of several detection techniques. Additionally, we investigate the fundamental reaction mechanisms that allow reduction of CO₂ and various nitrogen species to be reduced simultaneously. A detailed examination of catalyst design strategies aimed at improving electrocatalytic urea production—including heterostructure, atomically dispersed structures, and vacancy engineering—is provided. Finally, we address the emerging challenges that must be tackled as the technology progresses.