Compound kushen injection relieves tumor-associated macrophage-mediated immunosuppression through TNFR1 and sensitizes hepatocellular carcinoma to sorafenib

CKI acts on macrophages and CD8⁺ T cells to reshape the immune microenvironment of HCC, which improves the therapeutic outcomes of low-dose sorafenib and avoids adverse chemotherapy effects. Our study shows that traditional Chinese medicines with immunomodulatory properties can potentiate chemotherapeutic drugs and provide a promising approach for HCC treatment.