The important role of chloroplasts in plant immunity

), accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), biosynthesis of phytohormones, and expression of defense-related genes. Because information exchange between the chloroplast and the nucleus is very important during plant immunity, we also highlight the importance of chloroplast-nucleus communication via stromules in plant immunity. This review reveals the function of the chloroplast in maintaining the trade-off between plant growth and immunity, and expands our understanding of how chloroplasts enable complete activation of plant immunity.