Confinement-enhanced valorization of contaminants in electrified hydrogenation membranes for water purification

). However, further reducing the pore diameter to 4 μm diminishes performance. Multiphysics simulations reveal that smaller pores enhance mass transfer but worsen current distribution uniformity. Elucidating this spatial confinement effect offers a guiding design principle of cost-effective electrodes for sustainable wastewater treatment.