Seasonal Variation of Phyllosphere Microbial Communities Under Warming

ABSTRACT The phyllosphere is a complex microbial ecosystem residing on plant leaves, hosting microbes that influence plant growth and fitness. The phyllosphere is sensitive to temperature and moisture, so understanding its response to climate warming and variable moisture associated with changes in seasons is crucial for predicting ecosystem function. We conducted a 12‐year warming experiment in a sub‐tropical forest by transplanting a natural ecosystem from higher to lower elevations. We sampled phyllosphere microbial communities across wet and dry seasons for three consecutive years (years 10–12) to assess potential adaptation strategies to warming. Phyllosphere microbial community structure and diversity varied seasonally, with higher bacterial richness in the dry season; however, warming reduced bacterial richness across seasons. Co‐occurrence networks revealed stronger microbial interactions in the dry season, which exhibited reduced connectivity under warming. Community assembly was largely stochastic, with warming enhancing species turnover and dispersal. Notably, plant probiotics, enriched in the wetter season with greater environmental disturbances, played a key role in adaptation to seasonal changes and warming. Seasonal shifts in microbial function were observed: wet‐season bacteria were enriched in carbohydrate and energy metabolism, while dry‐season bacteria showed elevated sulfur metabolism, reflecting adaptive metabolic strategies to environmental conditions. Our study enhances the understanding of the seasonal patterns of phyllosphere microbial communities and the impact of climate warming, offering new insights into plant–microbial adaptation strategies in response to climate change.