Leaf sodium homeostasis controlled by salt gland is associated with salt tolerance in mangrove plant Avicennia marina

Abstract Avicennia marina, a mangrove plant growing in coastal wetland habitats, is frequently affected by tidal salinity. To understand its salinity tolerance, the seedlings of A. marina were treated with 0, 200, 400 and 600 mM NaCl. We found the whole-plant dry weight and photosynthetic parameters increased at 200 mM NaCl but decreased over 400 mM NaCl. The maximum quantum yield of primary photochemistry (Fv/Fm) significantly decreased at 600 mM NaCl. Transmission electron microscopy observations showed high salinity caused the reduction in starch grain size, swelling of the thylakoids and separation of the granal stacks, and even destruction of the envelope. In addition, the dense protoplasm and abundant mitochondria in the secretory and stalk cells, and abundant plasmodesmata between salt gland cells were observed in the salt glands of the adaxial epidermis. At all salinities, Na+ content was higher in leaves than in stems and roots; however, Na+ content increased in the roots while it remained at a constant level in the leaves over 400 mM NaCl treatment, due to salt secretion from the salt glands. As a result, salt crystals on the leaf adaxial surface increased with salinity. On the other hand, salt treatment increased Na+ and K+ efflux and decreased H+ efflux from the salt glands by the non-invasive micro-test technology, although Na+ efflux reached the maximum at 400 mM NaCl. Further real-time quantitative PCR analysis indicated that the expression of Na+/H+ antiporter (SOS1 and NHX1), H+-ATPase (AHA1 and VHA-c1) and K+ channel (AKT1, HAK5 and GORK) were up-regulated, and only the only Na+ inward transporter (HKT1) was down-regulated in the salt glands enriched adaxial epidermis of the leaves under 400 mM NaCl treatment. In conclusion, salinity below 200 mM NaCl was beneficial to the growth of A. marina, and below 400 mM, the salt glands could excrete Na+ effectively, thus improving its salt tolerance.