Bidirectional correlations between landscape patterns and hydrological processes: a systematic review across multi-level interactions

ABSTRACT Over centuries, the complex and multi-layered correlation between landscapes and hydrological systems has shaped surface dynamics. Yet, current research lacks comprehensive explanations that capture the different levels of interaction between these systems. This study conducted a meta-analysis of 692 paired landscape pattern and hydrological process (LPHP) metrics from 23 studies, revealing key feedback processes across meteorological, surface, and groundwater hydrology. We found that research on LPHP correlations has steadily increased, with a focus on the link between landscape configuration and surface hydrology processes. Under a multi-level framework, the correlation between landscape composition and hydrometeorological processes is the strongest, rather than the interaction between landscape configuration and surface hydrological processes. We also used quantitative methods to analyse the bidirectional interactions of LPHP. Future research should focus more on the interaction between meteorological and groundwater processes and landscape pattern changes, and further explore how landscape changes affect water distribution and transformation rates, incorporating process-based modelling. Ultimately, this will improve the understanding of the global long-term impacts on climate and hydrology. The bidirectional correlation mechanism can help identify key changes, analyse long-term macro trends, improve predictions of hydrological responses and risks, and support adjustments in land use and landscape planning.