Unveiling the Elaborated Metabolites and Metabolism of Carbofuran in Plants through Targeted and Nontargeted Screening Strategies

Carbofuran is one of the most commonly used carbamate pesticides. A thorough carbofuran metabolism in plants can provide essential insights for agricultural use and human health. This study aimed to uncover its possible metabolites, metabolic pathways, and complete metabolic profile in plants. By employing both targeted and nontargeted screening methods with LC–MS/MS, we identified twenty-two metabolites, of which 18 were novel in carbofuran-exposed plants. Based on these metabolites, a complete metabolic pathway of carbofuran was elaborated. Several metabolic reactions were first discovered, including the direct N-glucosidation of the carbamate moiety, hydroxylation at the aromatic ring, and malonylation of the glucosides in plants. Investigation of the carbofuran metabolism indicated that carbofuran was rapidly transformed, with intact residues and its metabolites predominantly found in leaves of various carbofuran-exposed plant species. This study enhances our understanding of carbofuran fate and transformation in plants, useful for its risk assessment in agricultural use and agrochemical management.