China’s passport power and belt-and-road initiative: An investigation of passport relations

Recent studies explore how China’s Belt-and-Road Initiative (BRI) has influenced its soft power, but little research connects the BRI with China’s passport power. This research article fills that gap by examining the relationship between China’s BRI influence and passport power, using 2024 data from the Henley Passport Index. It investigates whether countries offering visa-free access to Chinese passport holders are primarily BRI partners and whether those denying access are mostly non-BRI partners. It also examines whether these destinations are advanced economies and large or small states. In addition, the research considers how many countries China grants visa-free access to and their BRI status. Findings show a strong positive correlation between BRI partnerships and providing China with visa-free access. Western countries that form BRI partnerships with China often allow visa-free access to passport holders of Singapore, Japan, and South Korea, but not to Chinese counterparts. Despite many Western countries not partnering with the BRI or offering visa-free access to China, China still provides them with visa-free access. The study concludes that there are unbalanced passport relations.