Microbiome reveals inflammatory‐related bacteria and putative functional pathways involved in human papillomavirus‐associated penile squamous cell carcinoma

Abstract Background Penile squamous cell carcinoma (PSCC) is a rare disease that is more prevalent in developing countries, such as Brazil, and is linked to poor genital hygiene, which promotes the proliferation of microorganisms. Dysbiosis has an effect on the local immune response, increases the risk of viral infection, and can generate inflammatory processes. Current knowledge of the microbiota found in penile tissues is limited, and the bacterial diversity of the PSCC remains unknown. In this investigation, the microbiota associated with penile cancer and its potential role in tumor development and progression were identified. Methods The 16S rRNA gene was analyzed by next‐generation sequencing in 19 tumors and their respective non‐tumor adjacent tissues to perform taxonomic classification, analysis of core microbiome, abundance, and diversity of amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) (QIIME2 v.2020.2), and in silico functional prediction (PICRUST2, p < 0.05). Results In both tissues, the phyla Proteobacteria and Firmicutes, and genera Alcaligenes and Fusobaterium , were the most prevalent. Tumors presented a greater relative abundance of Fusobacteriota, Campilobacteria, and Fusobacterium ( p = 0.04, p = 0.04, and p = 0.039, respectively). In addition, the beta diversity analysis revealed a tendency for the formation of two distinct groups when only advanced tumors (pT2 and pT3) were considered. Further, the functional analysis identified the top 35 pathways, and 79.5% of PSCC samples contained pro‐inflammatory microorganisms. Conclusion We describe the first microbiome of penile carcinoma, which revealed an abundant and diverse microbiota as well as inflammatory‐related taxa (the phyla Proteobacteria and Firmicutes, the genera Fusobacterium and Prevotella , and the species Finegoldia magma and Pseudomonas geniculata ) and molecular pathways (chitin derivates degradation, the protocatechuic acid pathway, inositol metabolism, and the sucrose pathway), which have also been linked to inflammation and carcinogenesis. Moreover, we found specific and abundant ASVs in both tumor and non‐tumor tissues. Our data encourage further study to better understand the role of these microorganisms in penile carcinogenesis, offering an opportunity for advances in diagnosis, prognosis, and early therapy.