Current and emerging analytical techniques for the determination of PFAS in environmental samples

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large group of synthetic chemicals used in many commercial products and applications such as polymers, fire-retarding foams, cookware and food packaging. PFAS pose significant threats to the environment and human health because of their high stability, potential toxicity and persistence in the environment. This review summarizes the status of analytical methods for detection of the broad spectrum of PFAS. Conventional analytical techniques are first described with focus on chromatographic/mass spectrometry methods, semi-quantitative approaches and passive samplers. Emerging colorimetric, spectrofluorometric and electrochemical methods, and field-deployable sensors are then reviewed, highlighting novel detection mechanisms, analytical performance and potential towards achieving low cost detection in environmental samples. Their low cost and portability can enable greater spatial and temporal data resolution and provide a more comprehensive characterization and screening of PFAS-containing samples, but require further development to reach detection at the regulatory permissible limits. Potential applications and a critical assessment of future needs and opportunities to translate these technologies into the field are discussed.