A practical and scalable pathway for DMSO-based perovskite solar modules: all-green, ambient-air fabrication via direct α-phase transition

Abstract The industrialization of perovskite photovoltaics requires manufacturing routes that are efficient and scalable while meeting stringent safety, health, and environmental criteria. Here we demonstrate fully ambient-air fabrication of perovskite solar minimodules (PSMs) in which all functional layers (electron transport, perovskite, and hole transport) are deposited exclusively from green solvents . We introduce an air-assisted drying strategy that overcomes the long-standing barrier of crystallizing high-quality perovskite films from dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), the safest viable single-solvent alternative. By distributing high-pressure air uniformly over the wet perovskite films through a pre-designed funnel, we achieve rapid drying that yields compact, uniform perovskite layers directly from DMSO inks under ambient-air conditions. This enables PSMs with efficiencies up to 20.4% (4.2 cm 2 ) using DMSO alone. Incorporation of a second green solvent, 1-propanol (C3), modulates colloidal stability and crystallization, resulting in efficiencies of 20.7% (10.23 cm 2 ), and 21.4% (4.2 cm 2 ), representing the highest reported values for all-scalable, all-green, ambient-air processed PSMs. The devices retain 92% of their initial performance after 600 h of maximum power point operation at 40 o C. These results eliminate toxic solvents from the manufacturing workflow, outlining a path toward truly sustainable PSM manufacturing.