Polyvinyl alcohol cryogels (PVA-C): preparation and multimodal imaging applications

Polyvinyl alcohol cryogel (PVA-C) is a widely used tissue-mimicking material in medical imaging phantoms, essential for evaluating imaging techniques, training clinicians, and simulating anatomical tissue structures. Its tunable mechanical and imaging properties make it valuable for multimodal imaging. However, PVA-C phantom reproducibility remains challenging due to fabrication variations, including inconsistencies in freeze-thaw cycle (FTC) conditions, PVA concentration, and imaging additives. This study systematically examines how PVA concentration, FTC profiles, and contrast-enhancing additives affect the mechanical and imaging properties of PVA-C phantoms in ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and computed tomography (CT). Using in-house experiments and a comprehensive literature review, we analyze FTC conditions’ role in modulating stiffness, attenuation, and relaxation times. We also assess contrast agents such as barium sulfate, gadolinium, and silica-based scatterers on imaging visibility and result. Our findings identify optimal fabrication conditions that enhance PVA-C phantom reproducibility and performance across imaging modalities. Our findings offer a comprehensive framework for optimizing PVA-C phantoms, ensuring reliable multimodal imaging applications.