Gendered associations between time-related underemployment and mental health: longitudinal evidence from 21 waves of cohort data

Background Underemployment is an increasing feature of global labour markets. However, the mental health impacts of underemployment remain relatively under-researched. Longitudinal evidence is particularly sparse, as is accounting for gender differences in the association. Addressing key gaps, this study examines the association between time-related underemployment and mental health in Australian adults. Methods Pooled panel data from 21 waves (2002–2022) of the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia survey (n=18 288 participants, 124 531 observations) was used. Fixed-effects linear regression and Mundlak adjustment modelling was conducted to examine how time-related underemployment (not underemployed, underemployed 1–5, 6–10, 11–20 and ≥21 hours) was associated with 5-item mental health scale, with adjustment for time-varying confounders. Results A stepwise (or dose-dependent) association was observed between increasing time-related underemployment and mental health for both genders, with the strongest association observed in those underemployed by ≥21 hours for both women (−1.88, 95% CI −3.09 to –0.67) and men (−2.24, 95% CI −3.59 to –0.89). Some gender differences were observed. Most notably, more women in our sample were underemployed compared with men. Conclusions Addressing rising underemployment in labour markets has the potential to improve population mental health for everyone. Furthermore, targeted social policy to reduce gendered exposure to underemployment in Australia is also key to mental health gains in working-age women.