Nano-Iron Oxide (Fe3O4) Mitigates the Effects of Microplastics on a Ryegrass Soil–Microbe–Plant System

To understand microplastic-nanomaterial interactions in agricultural systems, a randomized block 90-day pot experiment was set up to cultivate ryegrass seedings in a typical red sandy soil amended with compost (1:9 ratio). Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene (PE) microplastic (MP) contaminants were added into pot soils at 0.1 and 10%, whereas nano-Fe₃O₄ (as nanoenabled agrochemicals) was added at 0.1% and 0.5% in comparison with chemical-free controls. The combination of nano-Fe₃O₄ and MPs significantly increased the soil pH (+3% to + 17%) but decreased the total nitrogen content (-9% to - 30%; P < 0.05). The treatment group with both nano-Fe₃O₄ and PE had the highest total soil C (29 g kg^-1 vs 20 g kg^-1 in control) and C/N ratio (13 vs 8 in control). Increased rhizosphere nano-Fe₃O₄ concentrations promoted ryegrass growth (+42% dry weight) by enhancing the chlorophyll (+20%) and carotenoid (+15%) activities. Plant leaf and root peroxidase enzyme activity was more significantly affected by nano-Fe₃O₄ with PVC (+15%) than with PE (+6%). Nano-Fe₃O₄ significantly changed the ryegrass bacterial community structure from belowground (the rhizoplane and root endosphere) to aboveground (the phylloplane). Under MP contamination, the addition of nano-Fe₃O₄ increased bacterial diversity (+0.35%) and abundance (+30%) in the phylloplane and further intensified the connectivity of ryegrass aboveground bacterial networks (positive association increased 17%). The structural equation model showed that the change in the plant microbiome was associated with the rhizosphere microbiome. Overall, these findings imply the positive influences of nano-Fe₃O₄ on the soil-microbe-plant system and establish a method to alleviate the harmful effects of MP accumulation in soils.