Biopolymeric and lipid-based nanotechnological strategies for the design and development of novel mosquito repellent systems: recent advances

Mosquitoes are the most medically important arthropod vectors of several human diseases. These diseases are known to severely incapacitate and debilitate millions of people, resulting in countless loss of lives. Over the years, several measures have been put in place to control the transmission of mosquito-borne diseases, one of which is using repellents. Repellents are one of the most effective personal protective measures against mosquito-borne diseases. However, conventional delivery systems of repellents (e.g., creams, gels, and sprays) are plagued with toxicity and short-term efficacy issues. The application of biopolymeric and lipid-based systems has been explored over the years to develop better delivery systems for active pharmaceutical ingredients including mosquito repellents. These delivery systems (e.g., solid lipid micro/nanoparticles, micro/nanoemulsions, or liposomes) possess desirable properties such as high biocompatibility, versatility, and controlled/sustained drug delivery, and thus are very important in tackling the clinical challenges of conventional repellent systems. Their capability for controlled/sustained drug release has improved patient compliance as it removes the need for consistent reapplication of repellents. They can also be engineered to reduce repellents' skin permeation, consequently improving their safety. However, despite the benefits that these systems offer very few of them have been successfully translated to the global market for commercial use, a vital challenge that previous reports have not thoroughly examined. The issue of limited clinical translation of novel repellent systems is a vital aspect to consider, as the ultimate goal is to move these systems from bench to bedside. As such, this study seeks to highlight the recent advances in the use of biopolymeric and lipid-based systems for the development of novel mosquito-repellent systems and also analyze the challenges that have limited the clinical translation of these systems while proposing possible strategies to overcome these challenges.