Interconnected Pathways of Alzheimer's Disease and Osteoporosis: A Review of Genetic, Hormonal, and Environmental Influences

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and osteoporosis (OP) are both age-related multifactorial degenerative diseases that share overlapping pathogenic mechanisms. While genetic factors contribute significantly to their onset and progression, environmental influences also play a crucial role. However, identifying the shared environmental factors and genetic architecture underlying the co-pathogenesis of AD and OP remains a significant challenge. This review highlights the common hormonal imbalances, environmental factors, genetic factors, and similar signaling pathways involved in both diseases. Furthermore, it explores the role of bone-secreted proteins and extracellular vesicles (EVs) in AD, as well as the effects of brain-derived proteins and EVs on bone homeostasis. By shedding light on the interconnected molecular and pathological mechanisms of AD and OP, this review aims to enhance our understanding of the underlying pathological molecular mechanisms of AD and OP, promote early diagnosis, and support the development of innovative therapeutic strategies for AD and OP patients.