Phytochemistry, nutraceutical potential, and metabolomic insights into Aesculus indica : bridging traditional uses with modern applications

Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook. is a deciduous tree species native to the temperate regions of the Himalayas. A member of the Sapindaceae family holds notable importance in traditional medicinal systems for its diverse applications. Different parts of A. indica are traditionally employed to treat a range of ailments such as rheumatism, digestive disorders, skin diseases, fever, arthritis, joint pain, and inflammation. These traditional practices are supported by recent pharmacological findings, which validate the plant's bioactive potential. This review compiles evidence highlighting A. indica's anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, and cytotoxic properties. The Aescin, a key ingredient of its seed, is particularly recognised for its potent anti-inflammatory and venotonic activities; however, improper seed processing can lead to toxicity concerns, underscoring the need for careful evaluation in medicinal applications. This review presents an in-depth overview of the botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of A. indica, emphasizing its commercial viability. Additionally, it explores advanced metabolomic tools/techniques to identify untapped bioactive compounds and aims to support further research and application of A. indica in nutraceutical and medicinal formulations.