CO 2 -assisted selective lithium extraction and closed-loop regeneration of spent NCM cathodes toward cleaner battery recycling

remaining after 100 cycles. A preliminary economic assessment estimated a net benefit of approximately USD 831.23 per ton of processed feedstock. This integration retains the value of both Li and the transition-metal residue while reducing downstream processing. Further work should focus on microstructural and interfacial control of the regenerated cathode and scale-up validation using compositionally variable feedstocks.