Mechanical, Durability and Microstructural Performance of OPC–GGBFS–FGD Gypsum Ternary Concrete: Identification of an Operational Sulfate Activation Threshold

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) production contributes approximately 7–8% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions, driving urgent demand for clinker-efficient binders utilizing industrial by-products. Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) represent underutilized industrial by-products with documented potential as supplementary cementitious materials. This study investigates the mechanical, durability and microstructural performance of OPC–GGBFS–FGD gypsum ternary concrete mixtures incorporating untreated flue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum at 0–20% of total binder mass and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) at 25–50% of total binder mass in M30 structural concrete (w/b = 0.45). Compressive, split tensile and flexural strengths were evaluated at 7–90 days alongside rapid chloride penetration (RCPT), water absorption, strength efficiency index (SEI) and SEM–EDX analyses. Binary GGBFS replacement progressively enhanced long-term compressive strength, with T35F0 attaining 55.6 N/mm2 at 90 days (+33.7% relative to the OPC control). Moderate FGD gypsum contents (5–10%) further enhanced overall performance. Among all mixtures, T50F10 exhibited the best overall performance on the mechanical and durability indicators evaluated, achieving 54.2 N/mm2 compressive strength at 90 days together with a rapid chloride permeability value of 410 C, corresponding to ‘Very Low’ chloride ion penetrability. Beyond 10% FGD gypsum, progressive multi-parameter deterioration was observed, and mixtures containing 20% FGD gypsum failed to meet the M30 design requirement at 28 days. SEM–EDX confirmed that optimum sulfate activation produced a dense C–(A)–S–H-rich matrix, while excess sulfate caused matrix disruption. The findings establish 10% FGD gypsum by total binder mass as the optimum sulfate activation threshold for the investigated GGBFS and FGD gypsum sources at w/b = 0.45, and demonstrate the potential of untreated industrial FGD gypsum to produce durable, low-clinker structural concrete.